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Reproduction - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Production of new individuals along a leaf margin of the miracle leaf plant (Kalanchoe pinnata). The small plant in front is about 1 cm (0. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual. In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to single- celled organisms. The cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself. The evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle for biologists. The two- fold cost of sex is that only 5. This produces offspring organisms whose genetic characteristics are derived from those of the two parental organisms. Asexual. Asexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create genetically similar or identical copies of themselves without the contribution of genetic material from another organism. Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission; viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses; Hydras (invertebrates of the order. Hydroidea) and yeasts are able to reproduce by budding. These organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of . Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species Mycocepurus smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means. Some species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like hydra, yeast (See Mating of yeasts) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. Reproduction The process of an organism producing more of its own kind. For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation. Other ways of asexual reproduction include parthenogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that involves only mitosis. Parthenogenesis is the growth and development of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called apomixis), invertebrates (e. It is sometimes also used to describe reproduction modes in hermaphroditic species which can self- fertilize. Sexual. Sexual reproduction is a biological process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms in a process that starts with meiosis, a specialized type of cell division. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup by creating haploidgametes. Most organisms form two different types of gametes. In these anisogamous species, the two sexes are referred to as male (producing sperm or microspores) and female (producing ova or megaspores). In isogamous species, the gametes are similar or identical in form (isogametes), but may have separable properties and then may be given other different names (see isogamy). For example, in the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, there are so- called . A few types of organisms, such as ciliates, Paramecium aurelia, have more than two types of .
6 In haploid organisms showing haplontic life cycle, gamete formation involves only mitosis. In these diploid zygote undergoes meiosis to produce haploid organisms. In diploid organisms showing diplontic or haplo.Sexually reproducing organisms have different sets of genes for every trait (called alleles). Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent, thereby ensuring that offspring have a combination of the parents' genes. Diploid having two copies of every gene within an organism, it is believed that . The zygotes of the gametes develop into sporangium, which produces haploid spores. The diploid stage is relatively short compared with that of haploid stage, i. The advantage of diploid, e. Bryophyte still maintains the sexual reproduction during its evolution despite the fact that the haploid stage does not benefit from heterosis at all. This may be an example that the sexual reproduction has a bigger advantage by itself, since it allows gene shuffling (hybrid or recombination between multiple loci) among different members of the species, that permits natural selection of the fit over these new hybrids or recombinants that are haploid forms. Allogamy. Allogamy is the fertilization of an ovum from one individual with the spermatozoa of another. Autogamy. Self- fertilization, also known as autogamy, occurs in hermaphroditic organisms where the two gametes fused in fertilization come from the same individual, e. For example, species Helonias bullata suffer from low genetic diversity due to self- fertilization. Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in gametes. Mitosis The resultant number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of original cells. The number of chromosomes in the offspring cells is the same as that of the parent cell. Meiosis The resultant number of cells is four times the number of original cells. This results in cells with half the number of chromosomes present in the parent cell. A diploid cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions (tetraploid to diploid to haploid), in the process forming four haploid cells. This process occurs in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis II. Same- sex. In recent decades, developmental biologists have been researching and developing techniques to facilitate same- sex reproduction. It is therefore concluded that most of the W- bearing PGC could not differentiate into spermatozoa because of restricted spermatogenesis. Some animals, such as the human and northern gannet, do not reach sexual maturity for many years after birth and even then produce few offspring. Others reproduce quickly; but, under normal circumstances, most offspring do not survive to adulthood. For example, a rabbit (mature after 8 months) can produce 1. These two main strategies are known as K- selection (few offspring) and r- selection (many offspring). Which strategy is favoured by evolution depends on a variety of circumstances. Animals with few offspring can devote more resources to the nurturing and protection of each individual offspring, thus reducing the need for many offspring. On the other hand, animals with many offspring may devote fewer resources to each individual offspring; for these types of animals it is common for many offspring to die soon after birth, but enough individuals typically survive to maintain the population. Some organisms such as honey bees and fruit flies retain sperm in a process called sperm storage thereby increasing the duration of their fertility. Other types. Polycyclic animals reproduce intermittently throughout their lives. Semelparous organisms reproduce only once in their lifetime, such as annual plants (including all grain crops), and certain species of salmon, spider, bamboo and century plant. Often, they die shortly after reproduction. This is often associated with r- strategists. Iteroparous organisms produce offspring in successive (e. Iteroparous animals survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes). This is more associated with K- strategists. Asexual vs. If each organism were to contribute to the same number of offspring (two), (a) the population remains the same size each generation, where the (b) asexual population doubles in size each generation. Organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction tend to grow in number exponentially. However, because they rely on mutation for variations in their DNA, all members of the species have similar vulnerabilities. Organisms that reproduce sexually yield a smaller number of offspring, but the large amount of variation in their genes makes them less susceptible to disease. Many organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually. Aphids, slime molds, sea anemones, some species of starfish (by fragmentation), and many plants are examples. When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is employed to exploit suitable conditions for survival such as an abundant food supply, adequate shelter, favorable climate, disease, optimum p. H or a proper mix of other lifestyle requirements. Populations of these organisms increase exponentially via asexual reproductive strategies to take full advantage of the rich supply resources. When food sources have been depleted, the climate becomes hostile, or individual survival is jeopardized by some other adverse change in living conditions, these organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction. Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species. The variations found in offspring of sexual reproduction allow some individuals to be better suited for survival and provide a mechanism for selective adaptation to occur. The meiosis stage of the sexual cycle also allows especially effective repair of DNA damages (see Meiosis and Bernstein et al.). Thus, seeds, spores, eggs, pupae, cysts or other . The biological study of how the origin of life produced reproducing organisms from non- reproducing elements is called abiogenesis. Whether or not there were several independent abiogenetic events, biologists believe that the last universal ancestor to all present life on Earth lived about 3. Scientists have speculated about the possibility of creating life non- reproductively in the laboratory. Several scientists have succeeded in producing simple viruses from entirely non- living materials. Being nothing more than a bit of RNA or DNA in a protein capsule, they have no metabolism and can only replicate with the assistance of a hijacked cell's metabolic machinery. The production of a truly living organism (e. A synthetic genome has been transferred into an existing bacterium where it replaced the native DNA, resulting in the artificial production of a new M. The Craig Venter Institute maintains the term . They also propose to stretch the boundaries between life and machines until the two overlap to yield . Williams used lottery tickets as an analogy in one explanation for the widespread use of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction, he argued, was like purchasing fewer tickets but with a greater variety of numbers and therefore a greater chance of success. Download buku PDF gratis.
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Debian - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Debian (). Three main branches are offered: stable (jessie), testing (stretch), and unstable (sid). The Debian stable. Linux distribution is one of the most popular for personal computers and network servers, and has been used as a base for several other distributions. The Debian testing and unstable branches are rolling release and eventually become the stable distribution after development and testing. Packages are first uploaded to unstable, from which they migrate to testing. When testing is mature enough it becomes stable. New distributions are updated continually, and the next candidate is released after a time- based freeze. As one of the earliest Linux distributions, it was envisioned that Debian was to be developed openly in the spirit of the GNU Project. This vision drew the attention and support of the Free Software Foundation, which sponsored the project for one year from November 1. November 1. 99. 5. For example, the i. IA- 3. 2 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real- time computing, for older PCs, and for x. PCs. Physical disks can also be bought from retailers. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet. Another option is to boot the installer from the network. This conflicts with e. Fedora, where grub version 2 is named grub. The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce and LXDE, and from special disc 1 CDs. These Debian Live images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer. A full install of Debian to the computer's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment. The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the apt toolset. The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories. The command can work with local . APT tools share dependency information and cached packages. The program comes with enhancements such as better search on package metadata. It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated. The packages included in this branch have had some testing in unstable but they may not be fit for release yet. It contains newer packages than stable but older than unstable. This branch is updated continually until it is frozen. Packages are accepted without checking the distribution as a whole. This branch can be installed through a system upgrade from Testing. Plone.app.ldap provides a user interface in a Plone site to manage LDAP and Active Directory servers. This package succeeds the simplon.plone.ldap package. Active Directory provides an LDAP interface to its data. Pangaea:/opt/pust/log# python Python 2.4.4 (#1, Jan 24 2007, 10:19:07) . It is supported by the Long Term Support community. Eventually, oldoldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases. Experimental is a temporary staging area of highly experimental software that is likely to break the system. It is not a full distribution and missing dependencies are commonly found in unstable, where new software without the damage chance is normally uploaded. They may be used to install a specific older version of some software. Debian 8 was named Jessie, after the cowgirl in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3. The Testing branch is currently named Stretch, after the toy rubber octopus in Toy Story 3. The unstable trunk is permanently nicknamed Sid, after the emotionally unstable boy next door who regularly destroyed toys. There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke that made computers work. These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media, but they can be adopted manually. For example, they may depend on packages which are in non- free or requires such for building them. The repository provides packages already included in Debian, interfering with the official maintenance. Eventually, project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the . The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project. Debian supports uniprocessor and symmetric multiprocessor systems. It is possible to install Debian with 6. MB of RAM for x. 86- 6. Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment. The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4. The Facebook and Twitter application interfaces are available to programmers. These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition. Although this document can be considered separate, it formally is part of the Social Contract. Internet Relay Chat channels (primarily on the Open and Free Technology Community (OFTC) and freenode networks) are also used for communication among developers. The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks. Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus. By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions. Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader. Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2. IC), that shared some powers of the leader. The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers. Some that have been cited include: Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian. Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy, even to fix non- Debian specific bugs, although coordination with upstream developers is advised. If the package is found to be valid, it is installed in the package archive into an area called the . The upload must be signed using Open. PGP- compatible software. Release- critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release. There are no outdated versions in unstable for any release ports. The migration does not break any packages in Testing. Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time. The migration is not blocked by a freeze. Thus, a release- critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing, because the updated library must meet the requirements too. A new release occurs after a freeze, when all important software is reasonably up- to- date in the Testing branch and any other significant issues are solved. At that time, all packages in the testing branch become the new stable branch. It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of oldstable, stable, testing and unstable at the same time. Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary, are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public. In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained openly, in the spirit of Linux and GNU. The first ports to non- IA- 3. Debian 1. 1 was released in 1. Perens was a controversial leader, regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian. He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month- long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines. He created the Busy. Box program to make it possible to run a Debian installer on a single floppy, and wrote a new installer. Perens left the project in 1. During these last release cycles, the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases. This release updated 7. A new installer with a modular design, Debian- Installer, allowed installations with RAID, XFS and LVM support, improved hardware detection, made installations easier for novice users, and was translated into almost forty languages. An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively. The efforts of Skolelinux, Debian- Med and Debian- Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational, had a medical affiliation, and ones made for people with disabilities. The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark. Two reasons that Debian modifies the Firefox software are to change the non- free artwork and to provide security patches. Time- based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian's policy of feature based releases, and to reduce overall freeze time. The Debian GNU/Linux FAQ. A Brief History of Debian. Debian Documentation Team. Retrieved 1. 0 February 2. Retrieved October 1. M.; Rivas, F.: Measuring Lenny: the size of Debian 5. Research. Gate^ ab. What's new in Debian 7. Release Notes for Debian 7. PC. Debian Linux Kernel Handbook. Preparing Files for USB Memory Stick Booting. Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide. Using Individual Components. Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide. Archived from the original on 2. For the CD images, it is useful to know that Debian supports a number of different desktops, including GNOME, KDE, Xfce and LXDE, and there is a different 'disk 1' image for each of these desktops. Debian package management. Resources for Debian Developers. Debian Developer's Reference. The Debian Administrator's Handbook. ISBN 9. 79- 1. 0- 9. You should identify each release with a pair of version numbers, a major version and a minor. We have no objection to using more than two numbers, but it is very unlikely that you really need them. The Debian GNU/Linux FAQ. What are Debian Pure Blends? What makes Debian unacceptable is that its inclusion of non- free software is not a mistake. Debian GNU/Linux Installation Guide. Archived from the original on 2. |
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